DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.
For more information about DNA:
The National Human Genome Research Institute fact sheet Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) provides an introduction to this molecule.
For additional information about the structure of DNA, please refer to the chapter called What Is A Genome? in the NCBI Science Primer. Scroll down to the heading “The Physical Structure of the Human Genome.”
The New Genetics, a publication of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, discusses the structure of DNA and how it was discovered.

DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.
For more information about DNA:
The National Human Genome Research Institute fact sheet Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) provides an introduction to this molecule.
For additional information about the structure of DNA, please refer to the chapter called What Is A Genome? in the NCBI Science Primer. Scroll down to the heading “The Physical Structure of the Human Genome.”
The New Genetics, a publication of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, discusses the structure of DNA and how it was discovered.

DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.
For more information about DNA:
The National Human Genome Research Institute fact sheet Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) provides an introduction to this molecule.
For additional information about the structure of DNA, please refer to the chapter called What Is A Genome? in the NCBI Science Primer. Scroll down to the heading “The Physical Structure of the Human Genome.”
The New Genetics, a publication of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, discusses the structure of DNA and how it was discovered.

DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.
For more information about DNA:
The National Human Genome Research Institute fact sheet Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) provides an introduction to this molecule.
For additional information about the structure of DNA, please refer to the chapter called What Is A Genome? in the NCBI Science Primer. Scroll down to the heading “The Physical Structure of the Human Genome.”
The New Genetics, a publication of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, discusses the structure of DNA and how it was discovered.

قص و قطع الحمض النووي:
كما هو معروف فان البروتينات موجودة داخل الخلية على شكل قطع منفصلة عن بعضها البعض و هذا بالطبع سهل عملية فصلها عن بعضها البعض بطرق فنية مناسبة.ولكن الجينات موجودة على الكروموسومات على شكل حبات متصلة ببعضها البعض و ليست على شكل قطع منفصلة.وهذا التسلسل و الترابط في الجينات جعل عملية فصله و عزل و استخلاص جين محدد من بقيه الجينات مهمة صعبة ان لم تكن مستحيلة قبل عام 1970.
ولكن اكتشاف الإنزيمات القاطعة(Restriction Nucleases ) ساعد في عملية استخلاص الجينات و قطع الدي ان أي و نسخها .
الإنزيمات القاطعة (Restriction Nucleases )
لا شك أن كل كائن حي لديه طرق دفاع مختلفة تحميه من غارات الأعداء و هجوم المعتدين! و البكتيريا هي إحدى هذه الكائنات و لها أعداء كثر و من أهم أعدائها الفيروسات المختلفة.و لقد قامة بعض من البكتيريا بإنتاج خمائر(إنزيمات) مهمتها تدمير الفيروسات.و من هذه الإنزيمات الإنزيمات القاطعة أو (Restriction Nucleases).و تقوم هذه المقصاة أو القواطع بقص الحمض النووي(الدي إن أي)للفيروس و بذلك يشل عمله و يبطل مفعولة. و بما أن الدي إن أي مادة موجودة بشكل طبيعي في البكتيريا كما هو الحال في الفيروسات و الكثير من الكائنات الحية فان هذه المقصاة قد تشكل خطرا على البكتيريا نفسها في قصها لدي إن أي الخاص بها.ولكن هذا لا يحدث و السر في ذلك هو قيام البكتيريا بتحوير أجزاء من الدي إن أي الخاص بها عن طريق إضافة مجموعة الميثيل( Methyl) إلى بعض الأحماض النووي من نوع الادنين او السيتوسن(Methylation at an A or a C residue ) فلا يستطيع المقص أو القاطع من قص الحمض النووي الخاص بالبكتيريا.و عند اكتشاف هذه القواطع في السبعينيات الميلادية بدأ العلماء في استخدامها كمقصاة لقص الدي إن أي .و ساعدتهم هذه المقصاة في عملية التحكم في الدي أن أي.و يوجد حاليا أكثر من مائه نوع من هذه المقصاة.و تقسم هذه المقصاة إلى نوعين رئيسيين، النوع الأول يقص شريط الدي إن أي المزدوج بشكل رأسي مستقيم(Blunt ends) و النوع الثاني يقص بشكل متعرج(Staggered cuts, ) و بتالي يجعل طرفي الدي إن أي المقطوع مادة قابلة "للزق"قطعة غريبة من الدي أن أي فيها.و عن لزق قطعة من الدي إن أي في داخل الفراغ الناتج من القطع ينتج لنا قطعة مركبة من قطعتين مختلفتين من الدي إن أي و هذه القطعة تسمى دي إن أي مهجّن أو (Recombinant DNA).
كيف يتعرف الإنزيم القاطع على المكان المفترض أن يحدث القطع فيه؟
كل إنزيم قاطع يعتبر عن مقص خاص لقطع الدي إن أي في نقطة محددة.و يتعرف الإنزيم القاطع على مكان القطع حسب تسلسل الدي إن أي للقطعة.فكل إنزيم قاطع يقطع في تسلسل محدد.فمثلا الإنزيم القاطع المعروف بالهيبا و احد(Hpa I )يقطع عندما يجد 6 من الأحماض النووية في هذا التسلسل ( GTTAAC) بينما الإنزيم القاطع إيكو أر واحد (Eco RI ) يقطع عندما يجد 6 من الأحماض النووية في هذا التسلسل( GAATTC).و للمعلومية فان هيبا واحد سمي بهذا الاسم لأنه يوجد في بكتيريا الهيموفلس بارا انفلونزا (Hemophilus parainfluenzae ) و هذا الإنزيم يعتبر من الإنزيمات التي تقطع بشكل رأسي مستقيم.بنما انزيم الايكو ار واحد فهو مأخوذ من بكتيريا الايكو كولي (Escherichia coli )، ويعتبر من الإنزيمات التي تقطع بشكل متعرج.

تسلسل مواقع القطع Recognition Sites لبعض الإنزيمات القاطعة
الإنزيم القاطع
المصدر
المقطع الذي تُميزة
BamHI
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens H
GGATCC
EcoRI
Escherichia coli RY13
GAATTC
HaeIII
Haemophilus aegyptius
GGCC
HindIII
Haemophilus influenzae Rd
AAGCTT
HpaI
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
GTTAAC
HpaII
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
CCGG
MboI
Moraxella bovis
GATC
NotI
Nocardia otitidis-caviarum
GCGGCCGC
SfiI
Streptomyces fimbriatus
GGCCNNNNNGGCC
TaqI
Thermus aquaticus
TCGA
راجع هذين الموقعين للمزيد (Restriction Enzyme Database) (Orbigene)